Heraclitus
Ionian, but more mystic than the Milesians
Contemptuous of men. An ascetic like Nietsche.
Believed that the primordial element is fire. The soul is made of water and fire. Man strives to balance – becoming all water is death to the soul.
The universe was not created – it was always there and always will be – like a perpetual fire. God is not a being or creator, but the embodiment of cosmic justice.
Everything is in a state of flux – everything changes and nothing is permanent. These ideas are problematical to people exposed to uncertainty and catastrophe – they need the comfort of permanence in god and immortality.
Parmenides
Elean, from southern Italy – even more mystic than Heraclitus.
Believed in permanence – the opposite of Heraclitus – ie nothing changes. Influenced Socrates and Plato.
Invented metaphysics based on logic – followed by most subsequent metaphysicists, including Hegel.
Doubted the senses – considered observations as possible illusions.
Placed great store on arguments based on thought and language. Argued that it was self evident that words have a constant meaning – although we now know different. Thought and language implied existence, which therefore does not change. Even if a person or object no longer exists, with the concept of memory we can think of them now and so something must still exist. The problem is what exactly still exists. This is an idea refuted and revived through time, and is often addressed by later philosophers.
Often used to argue that God must exist in this sense because people still speak of him and build churches etc.
Empedocles – 440 BC
Acragos, Sicily
Discovered that air pressure can resist the flow of water – ie it is a substance.
Also discovered centrifugal forces
Concluded that the Moon reflected light, but believed that the Sun did also.
Devised a strange theory of evolution by natural selection – hands, arms, legs and other parts floated around and joined up, with only certain combinations surviving.
Founded the Italian school of medicine.
Believed in 4 primal substances – fire, air, water and earth. Everything was made from these, combined by “love” and separated by “strife”. Things are always changing in repeating cycles. Changes are governed by “chance” and “necessity”, with no “purpose” involved. The universe started out as a sphere, with all the love inside, and all the strife outside – known as the Golden Age. Strife enters and love exits, until eventually all the strife will be inside – then the cycle will be repeated.
He followed the Pythagorean religion, and believed himself to be a god.