Athens – 450 to 400 BC
Athens was a true democracy with judges and executive officers chosen by lot, and only serving for a short period. The Greek legal system did not have lawyers. Cases were heard by several judges, and people generally presented their own cases. Any interested party could speak.
The Sophists were professional scholars in Athens who earned their living by teaching the sons of wealthy families. Aristocrats were often accused of impiety or corruption, and the practice arose of the scholars speaking in their client’s defence.
The Sophists developed a technique known as dialectic, using question and answer coupled with logic to extract ideas already within the individual subject – often likened to a midwife for ideas. They would use their art of debate to argue any proposition, and were considered immoral and frivolous by many. Nevertheless, the true Sophists would apply their logic honestly and remain objective, not aiming to twist discussion to a desired outcome.
The Sophists did not embrace any particular set of ideas themselves. There was no recognised “school of thought”. If they did have beliefs they were unexpressed – as in Socrates belief in life after death.
Protagoras – 450 BC
Born in Abdera in 450 BC, and visited Athens in 430 BC. Became “Professor” of the Sophists.
“Man is the measure of all things” – ie if 2 men disagree there is no merit in debating who is right – there is no such thing as objective truth – it all depends on the individual senses. Eg to a man with jaundice the world looks yellow. To a healthy man it does not. Both are “right”. The best thing to believe is the belief of the majority. One mans opinion may be “better”, but it cannot be “truer”
There is a story that Protagoras taught a young man on the terms that that he would only be paid if the man won his first case. He then sued the man for his fees.
Socrates – ? to 399 BC
An Athenian, executed in 399 BC
There are 2 Socrates – the real person, and the character in Plato’s ( his pupil) writings. Socrates was a debater, and not a writer, so there is no written record apart from that of observers.
He was a sceptic – he believed that men’s wisdom was worthless. The wisest man knows only that he knows nothing.
He experienced cataleptic trances – he would suddenly stop and stand in a trance for many hours. He heard voices – they told him what not to do. He was reputedly ugly, with a snub nose and a paunch, wearing only shabby clothes and going barefoot. But on military service he was considered the toughest of all, withstanding lack of food and extreme cold. He seldom drank wine, not caring for it, but when he did he could out drink anyone, and was never seen drunk.
Socrates did not express his own beliefs. He would discuss linguistics and semantics, but not real ethics. He employed dialectic to bring out ideas from others. This method has limitations as it can never make new discoveries, but can only identify logical inconsistencies in existing beliefs. Subsequent philosophers under his influence and using the technique would be severely limited as a result.
In 404 BC Sparta defeated Athens, and 30 tyrants were put in place to rule the city. Many had been schooled by Socrates. The situation only lasted a year, but it engendered bad feeling against Socrates. He was accused of corrupting young men, and not worshipping the official gods. Socrates could have escaped. However, he did not fear death. He believed that it was either a dreamless sleep, or the soul goes to another world. He embraced the situation and chose to defend himself in court, knowing that he was likely to face death. His last words in court were reportedly ”I go to die, you to live – which is better god only knows.”